Men’s Baldness Stigma and Body Dissatisfaction
Main Article Content
Abstract
Introduction: Head hair forms a central component of the sociocultural male appearance ideal (e.g.,
mesomorphic, tall, young and not bald) and carries masculine connotations and stigma. Immense pressures to conform to this male appearance ideal gives rise to body dissatisfaction. Previous assessments of body dissatisfaction are too narrow, ignoring dissatisfaction beyond mesomorphy such as baldness dissatisfaction. Our study involved two research questions: (i) Do the facial expressions assigned to images of bald and non-bald men differ? and (ii) What forms of body dissatisfaction, including baldness dissatisfaction, do men have and are these related to men’s wellbeing and muscularity behaviours?
Method: Eighty-six male participants aged 18–58 years (mean = 23.62; standard deviation = 7.80) were randomly exposed to 10 images of smiling men (half balding and half not) and were asked to rate the facial expression displayed. Participants also rated their body dissatisfaction and wellbeing. Ethics statement: Institutional ethics approval was granted.
Results: We found that participants interpreted the facial expressions of images of bald men slightly more negatively than non-bald men. Most participants reported some form of body dissatisfaction correlated with wellbeing and muscularity enhancing behaviours, albeit weakly. Participants also disclosed a range of body dissatisfaction aspects (including surrounding muscularity, body fat, teeth alignment, skin tone and facial hair amount) though generally were not impacted heavily nor highly dissatisfied.
Conclusion: These findings underscore the complex challenge in producing a complete assessment of men’s body dissatisfaction and the general resilience men experience with extant appearance pressures around their bodies and head hair.
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Jankowski, G., Sherwin, M., & Deighton-Smith, N. (2021). Men’s Baldness Stigma and Body Dissatisfaction. International Journal of Mens Social and Community Health, 4(1), e68-e82. https://doi.org/10.22374/ijmsch.v4i1.63
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2. Labre MP. Burn fat, build muscle: A content analysis of men’s health and men’s fitness. Int J Mens Health. 2005;4(2):187–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.3149/jmh.0402.187
3. Jankowski GS, Slater A, Tiggemann M, Fawkner H. The appearance potency of gay and straight men’s websites. Psychol Sex Rev. 2016;7(2):48–62.
4. Law C, Labre MP. Cultural standards of attractiveness: A 30-year look at changes in male images in magazines. J Mass Commun Q. 2002;79(3):697–711. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/107769900207900310
5. Leit RA, Pope HG, Jr., Gray JJ. Cultural expectations of muscularity in men: The evolution of playgirl centrefolds. Int J Eat Disord. 2001;29(1):90–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1098-108X(200101)29:1%3C90::AID-EAT15%3E3.0.CO;2-F
6. Pope HG, Jr., Olivardia R, Gruber A, Borowiecki J. Evolving ideals of male body image as seen through action toys. Int J Eat Disord. 1999;26:65–72. http://dx.doi. org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199907)26:1%3C65::AID-EAT8%3E3.0.CO;2-D
7. Buote VM, Wilson AE, Strahan EJ, Gazzola SB, Papps F. Setting the bar: Divergent sociocultural norms for women’s and men’s ideal appearance in real-world contexts. Body Image. 2011;8(4):322–34.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.06.002
8. Deighton-Smith N, Bell BT. Objectifying fitness: A content and thematic analysis of #fitspiration images on social media. Psychol Pop Media Cult. 2018;7(4):467–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000143
9. Lanzieri N, Cook BJ. Examination of muscularity and body fat depictions in magazines that target heterosexual and gay men. Body Image. 2013;10(2):251–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.12.003
10. Rohlinger DA. Eroticizing men: Cultural influences on advertising and male objectification. Sex Roles. 2002;46(3):61–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1016575909173
11. Barlett CP, Vowels CL, Saucier DA. Meta-analyses of the effects of media images on men’s body-image concerns. J Soc Clin Psychol. 2008;27(3):279–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2008.27.3.279
12. Blond A. Impacts of exposure to images of ideal bodies on male body dissatisfaction: A review. Body Image. 2008 Sep;5(3):244–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. bodyim.2008.02.003
13. Bordo S. The male body: A new look at men in public and in private. 1st ed paperback. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux Inc; 1999. 358 p.
14. Frederick DA, Essayli JH. Male body image: The roles of sexual orientation and body mass index across five national U.S. studies. Psychol Men Masculinity. 2016;17(4):336–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/men0000031
15. Pope HG, Jr., Gruber AJ, Mangweth B, Bureau B, deCol C, Jouvent R. Body image perception among men in three countries. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157:1297–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.8.1297
16. Tiggemann M, Martins Y, Kirkbride A. Oh to be lean and muscular: Body image ideals in gay and heterosexual men. Psychol Men Masculinity. 2007;8(1):15–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.8.1.15
17. Griffiths S, Hay P, Mitchison D, Mond JM, McLean SA, Rodgers B, et al. Sex differences in the relation-ships between body dissatisfaction, quality of life and psychological distress. Aust N Z J Public Health. 2016; 40(6):518–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1753-6405.12538
18. Jacobi C, Fittig E. Psychosocial risk factors for eating disorders. In: Stewart Agras W, editor. The Oxford handbook of eating disorders. New York: Oxford University Press; 2010. p. 123–36.
19. Kanayama G, Barry S, Hudson JI, Pope HG, Jr. Body image and attitudes toward male roles in anabolic-androgenic steroid users. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(4):697–703. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.4.697
20. Olivardia R, Pope HG, Jr., Borowiecki JJ, Cohane GH. Biceps and body image: The relationship between muscularity and self-esteem, depression, and eating disorder symptoms. Psychol Men Masculinity. 2004;5(2):112–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.5.2.112
21. Pope HG, Kanayama G, Hudson JI. Risk factors for illicit anabolic-androgenic steroid use in male weight-lifters: A cross-sectional cohort study. Biol Psychiatry. 2012 Feb;71(3):254–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.06.024
22. Gough B, Seymour-Smith S, Matthews CR. Body dissatisfaction, appearance investment, and wellbe-ing: How older obese men orient to “aesthetic health.” Psychol Men Masculinity. 2015;17(1):84–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/men0000012
23. Pope HG, Jr., Phillips KA, Olivardia R. The Adonis complex: The secret crisis of male body obsession. New York: Free Press; 2000. 314 p.
24. Bennett E, Gough B. In pursuit of leanness: The management of appearance, affect and masculinities within a men’s weight loss forum. Health Interdiscip J Soc Study Health Illn Med. 2012 Jul;17(3):284–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1363459312454149
25. East J. I hope protein world are installing sentient devices into reality stars’ brains [Internet]. [cited 2014 Oct 17]. Available from: https://storify.com/ mrjamieeast/i-hope-protein-world-are-installing-sentient-devic
26. Karazsia BT, Crowther JH, Galioto R. Undergraduate men’s use of performance- and appearance-enhancing substances: An examination of the gateway hypothesis. Psychol Men Masculinity. 2013;(2):129.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0027810
27. Diedrichs PC, Lee C, Kelly M. Seeing the beauty in everyday people: A qualitative study of young Australians’ opinions on body image, the mass media and models. Body Image. 2011;8(3):259–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.03.003
28. Adams G, Turner H, Bucks R. The experience of body dissatisfaction in men. Body Image. 2005 Sep;2(3):271– 83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.05.004
29. Cafri G, Thompson JK. Measuring male body image: A review of the current methodology. Psychol Men Masculinity. 2004;5(1):18–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.5.1.18
30. Halliwell E, Dittmar H. Associations between appearance-related self-discrepancies and young women’s and men’s affect, body satisfaction and emotional eating: A comparison of fixed-item and participant-generated self-discrepancies. Personal Psychol Bull. 2006;32:447–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167205284005
31. Thompson JK. The (mis)measurement of body image: Ten strategies to improve assessment for applied and research purposes. Body Image. 2004 Jan;1(1):7–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1740-1445(03)00004-4
32. Tiggemann M, Martins Y, Churchett L. Beyond muscles: Unexplored parts of men’s body image. J Health Psychol. 2008;13(8):1163–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1359105308095971
33. NHS. Hair loss [Internet]. [cited 2020 Mar 17]. Available from:
https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/hair-loss/ 34. Blumeyer A, Tosti A, Messenger A, Reygagne P,
Del Marmol V, Spuls PI, et al. Evidence-based (S3) guideline for the treatment of androgenetic alopecia in women and in men. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges J Ger Soc Dermatol JDDG. 2011 Oct;9 (Suppl 6):S1–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1610-0379.2011.07802.x
35. DeMuro-Mercon C, Rhodes T, Girman CJ, Vatten L. Male-pattern hair loss in Norwegian men: A community-based study. Dermatology. 2000;200(3):219–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000018386
36. Ricciardelli R. Masculinity, consumerism, and ap-pearance: A look at men’s hair. Can Rev Sociol Can Sociol. 2011;48(2):181–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-618X.2011.01261.x
37. Frith H, Jankowski GS. Psychosocial impact of androgenetic alopecia on men: A systematic review & meta analysis [Internet]. [cited 2020 Dec 15]. Available from: https://osf.io/uvzp9
38. Kranz D. Young men’s coping with androgenetic alopecia: Acceptance counts when hair gets thinner. Body Image. 2011 Sep;8(4):343–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.06.006
39. Jankowski GS, Gough B, Fawkner H, Halliwell E, Diedrichs PC. Young men’s minimisation of their body dissatisfaction. Psychol Health. 2018;33 (11):1343-1363. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2018.1496251
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