A Mixed-Methods Evaluation of a Gender-Sensitive Rite of Passage Program for Adolescent Males
Main Article Content
Abstract
Introduction
Current gendered health disparities impacting the wellbeing of boys and young men require new early intervention-focussed approaches. Health promotion programs developed with young men’s health needs and preferences in mind commonly report positive outcomes. Male-specific rite of passage programs aim to formally acknowledge the life-stage transition from boyhood to manhood through a holistic focus on identity, community, and social responsibility. While these programs are growing in popularity, there is limited data available on their effectiveness.
Methods
This study undertook a pilot evaluation of the Making of Men rite of passage program in a sample of second-ary school boys (n=61, age M=16.0, SD=0.5) and their accompanying fathers or male mentors (n=47, age M=52.1, SD=5.8 years) providing non-matched pre-test, post-test, alongside follow-up data for participating boys. Qualitative interviews were also undertaken with 15 individuals (5 mothers, 6 staff members, 4 fathers).
Results
Quantitative program feedback indicated acceptability, with most respondents providing positive feedback, particularly from participating fathers. Exploratory quantitative effects indicated potential improvements in subjective social support and open communication among boys. Fathers appeared to report lower confor-mity to traditional masculine norms post-program, in addition to more open communication. Qualitative interviews identified three main themes: enabling relational bonds, creating a men-specific context, and supporting developmental transitions.
Conclusions
Positive program acceptability and promising outcome effects highlighted the present rite of passage program as a promising mechanism for supporting healthy masculine identity development among adolescent males.
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How to Cite
Wilson, M., Gwyther, K., Swann, R., Casey, K., Keele, S., Rubinstein, A., & Rice, S. (2021). A Mixed-Methods Evaluation of a Gender-Sensitive Rite of Passage Program for Adolescent Males. International Journal of Mens Social and Community Health, 4(1), e38-e53. https://doi.org/10.22374/ijmsch.v4i1.52
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References
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8. Barker G. What about boys? A literature review on the health and development of adolescent boys. World Health Organisation, 2006. https://doi.org/10.1037/e570302006-001
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11. Rice S, Fallon B, Bambling M. Men and depression: The impact of masculine role norms throughout the lifespan. Aust Educ Dev Psychol. 2011;28(2):133-44. https://doi.org/10.1375/aedp.28.2.133
12. Seidler ZE, Dawes AJ, Rice SM, Oliffe JL, Dhillon HM. The role of masculinity in men’s help-seeking for depression: a systematic review. Clin Psych Rev. 2016;49:106-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.09.002
13. Genuchi MC, Mitsunaga LK. Sex differences in masculine depression: externalizing symptoms as a primary feature of depression in men. The Journal of Men’s Studies. 2015;23(3):243-51. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1060826514561986
14. King TL, Shields M, Sojo V, Daraganova G, Currier D, O’Neil A, et al. Expressions of masculinity and associations with suicidal ideation among young males. BMC Psychiatry. 2020;20:1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-2475-y
15. Smith JA, Watkins DC, Griffit DM. Equity, gender and health: New directions for global men’s health promotion. Health Promot J Austr. 2020;31(2):161-5. https://doi.org/10.1002/hpja.337
16. Keddie A. Engaging boys and young men in gender transformation: The possibilities and limits of a pedagogy of empathy. NORMA. 2020;15(2):97-110. https://doi.org/10.1080/18902138.2019.1706883
17. Wilson M, Gwyther K, Swann R, Casey K, Featherston R, Oliffe J, et al. Operationalizing positive masculinity: A theoretical synthesis and school-based framework to engage boys and young men. Health Promot Int. 2021:daab031. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daab031
18. Robertson S, White A, Gough B, Robinson R, Seims A, Raine G, et al. Promoting mental health and wellbeing with men and boys: What works? Project Report – Centre for Men’s Health, Leeds Beckett University, 2015.
19. Su RX, McLean S, Dallat C, Lane BR. Positive masculinity in the outdoors: Applying a systems lens to evaluate an adolescent outdoor education program. J Outdoor Environ Educ. 2021:1-21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42322-021-00078-7
20. West‐Olatunji C, Shure L, Garrett MT, Conwill W, Rivera ET. Rite of passage programs as effective tools for fostering resilience among low‐income African American male adolescents. J Humanist Couns Ed Dev. 2008;47(2):131-43. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1939.2008.tb00053.x
21. Rubinstein A. In the surgery: Holistic management of adolescent health. J Complement Med. 2005;4(5):43.
22. Smith AP. The implementation of a rites of passage programme into a boys’ secondary school. Pastoral Care Ed. 2012;30(4):345-57. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643944.2012.688062
23. Grof C. Rites of passage: a necessary step towards wholeness. Crossroads, the quest for contemporary rites of passage Open Court Publishing Company, La Salla, Illinois, USA. 1996.
24. Chu PS, Saucier DA, Hafner E. Meta-analysis of the relationships between social support and wellbeing in children and adolescents. J Soc Clin Psychol. 2010;29(6):624-45. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2010.29.6.624
25. Lubans DR, Smith JJ, Morgan PJ, Beauchamp MR, Miller A, Lonsdale C, et al. Mediators of psychological wellbeing in adolescent boys. J Adolesc Health. 2016;58(2):230-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.10.010
26. Courtenay W. Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men’s wellbeing: A theory of gender and health. Soc Sci Med. 2000;50:1385-401. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(99)00390-1
27. Pitsoane EM, Gasa VG. The role of father-son relationship in behavioural and emotional development of adolescent boys. Gender and Behav. 2018;16(1):10748-57.
28. Vargas AP, Park‐Taylor J, Harris AM, Ponterotto JG. The identity development of urban minority young men in single‐mother households. J Couns Dev. 2016;94(4):473-82. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12106
29. Fellers M, Schrodt P. Perceptions of fathers’ confirmation and affection as mediators of masculinity and relational quality in father-child relationships. J Fam Commun. 2021;21(1):46-62. https://doi.org/10.1080/15267431.2020.1866574
30. Chu PS, Saucier DA, Hafner E. Meta-analysis of the relationships between social support and wellbeing in children and adolescents. J Soc Clin Psych. 2010;29(6):624-645. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2010.29.6.624
31. Mahalik JR, Locke BD, Ludlow LH, Diemer MA, Scott RP, Gottfried M, Freitas G. Development of the conformity to masculine norms inventory. Psychol Men Masc. 2003;4(1):3-25. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.4.1.3
32. Barnes HL, Olson DH. Parent-adolescent communication and the circumplex model. Child Dev. 1985;56(2):438-47. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129732
33. Koenig HG, Westlund RE, George LK, Hughes DC, Blazer DG, Hybels C. Abbreviating the Duke Social Support Index for use in chronically ill elderly individuals. Psychosomatics. 1993;34(1):61-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0033-3182(93)71928-3
34. Stewart-Brown S, Tennant A, Tennant R, Platt S, Parkinson J, Weich S. Internal construct validity of the Warwick-Edinburgh mental wellbeing scale (WEMWBS): A Rasch analysis using data from the Scottish health education population survey. Health Qual Life Outcomes. 2009;7(15):1-8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-7-15
35. Braun V, Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol. 2006;3(2):77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
36. Vella SA, Swann C, Batterham M, Boydell KM, Eckermann S, Fogarty A, et al. Ahead of the game protocol: A multi-component, community sport-based program targeting prevention, promotion and early intervention for mental health among adolescent males. BMC Public Health. 2018;18(1):1-12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5319-7
37. Elliott K. Negotiations between progressive and ‘traditional’expressions of masculinity among young Australian men. J Sociol. 2019;55(1):108-23. https://doi.org/10.1177/1440783318802996
38. Anderson E, McCormack M. Inclusive masculinity theory: Overview, reflection and refinement. J Gend Stud. 2018;27(5):547-61. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2016.1245605
39. Connell R. Masculinities. Cambridge. Polity Press; 1995.
40. Addis ME, Mansfield AK, Syzdek MR. Is “masculinity” a problem?: Framing the effects of gendered social learning in men. Psychol Men Masc. 2010;11(2):77-90. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018602
41. O’Neil JM. Is criticism of generic masculinity, essentialism, and positive-healthy-masculinity a problem for the psychology of men? Psychol Men Masc. 2010;11(2):98-106. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018917
42. McNeish R, Walker C, Massey O, Tran Q. Using concept mapping to operationalize mental wellbeing for men and boys. Am J Community Psychol. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12419
43. Stevens M, Golombok S, Beveridge M, Study Team TA. Does father absence influence children’s gender development? Findings from a general population study of preschool children. Parenting. 2002;2(1):47-60. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327922par0201_3
44. Juby H, Farrington DP. Disentangling the link between disrupted families and delinquency: Sociodemography, ethnicity and risk behaviours. Br J Criminol. 2001;41(1):22-40. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/41.1.22
45. Jones KA, Benda BB. Alcohol use among adolescents with non-residential fathers: A study of assets and deficits. Alcohol Treat Q. 2004;22(1):3-25. https://doi.org/10.1300/j020v22n01_02
46. Levant RF, McDermott R, Parent MC, Alshabani N, Mahalik JR, Hammer JH. Development and evaluation of a new short form of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI-30). J Couns Psychol. 2020;67(5):622–636. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000414.
47. Dzewaltowski DA, Estabrooks PA, Welk G, Hill J, Milliken G, Karteroliotis K, et al. Healthy youth places: A randomized controlled trial to determine the effectiveness of facilitating adult and youth leaders to promote physical activity and fruit and vegetable consumption in middle schools. Health Educ Behav. 2009;36(3):583-600. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198108314619
48. Wong NT, Zimmerman MA, Parker EA. A typology of youth participation and empowerment for child and adolescent health promotion. Am J Community Psychol. 2010;46(1):100-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9330-0
49. Coleman D. Traditional masculinity as a risk factor for suicidal ideation: Cross-sectional and prospective evidence from a study of young adults. Arch Suicide Res. 2015;19(3):366-84. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2014.957453
50. Bell B. The rites of passage and outdoor education: Critical concerns for effective programming. J Exp Educ. 2003;26(1):41-9. https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590302600107
51. Van Gennep A. The rites of passage (MB Vizedom & GL Caffee, trans.). Chicago: University of Chicago (Original work published 1908). 1960.
2. King TL, Shields M, Sojo V, Daraganova G, Currier D, O’Neil A, et al. Expressions of masculinity and associations with suicidal ideation among young males. BMC Psychiatry. 2020;20:1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-2475-y
3. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Causes of Death, Australia, 2017. Belconnen, ACT: Commonwealth of Australia.
4. Heise L, Greene ME, Opper N, Stavropoulou M, Harper C, Nascimento M, et al. Gender inequality and restrictive gender norms: Framing the challenges to health. The Lancet. 2019;393(10189):2440-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(19)30652-x
5. Gwyther K, Swann R, Casey K, Purcell R, Rice SM. Developing young men’s wellbeing through community and school-based programs: A systematic review. PloS one. 2019;14(5):e0216955. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216955
6. Seaton CL, Bottorff JL, Jones-Bricker M, Oliffe JL, DeLeenheer D, Medhurst K. Men’s mental health promotion interventions: A scoping review. Am J Mens Health. 2017;11(6):1823-37. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988317728353
7. Irvine H, Livingstone M, Flood M. The man box: A study on being a young man in Australia. Melbourne, Australia: Jesuit Social Services. 2018.
8. Barker G. What about boys? A literature review on the health and development of adolescent boys. World Health Organisation, 2006. https://doi.org/10.1037/e570302006-001
9. Evans J, Frank B, Oliffe JL, Gregory D. Health, illness, men and masculinities (HIMM): A theoretical framework for understanding men and their health. J Mens Health. 2011;8(1):7-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jomh.2010.09.227
10. McCreary DR, Saucier DM, Courtenay WH. The drive for muscularity and masculinity: Testing the associations among gender-role traits, behaviors, attitudes, and conflict. Psychol Men Masc. 2005;6(2):83-94. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.6.2.83
11. Rice S, Fallon B, Bambling M. Men and depression: The impact of masculine role norms throughout the lifespan. Aust Educ Dev Psychol. 2011;28(2):133-44. https://doi.org/10.1375/aedp.28.2.133
12. Seidler ZE, Dawes AJ, Rice SM, Oliffe JL, Dhillon HM. The role of masculinity in men’s help-seeking for depression: a systematic review. Clin Psych Rev. 2016;49:106-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.09.002
13. Genuchi MC, Mitsunaga LK. Sex differences in masculine depression: externalizing symptoms as a primary feature of depression in men. The Journal of Men’s Studies. 2015;23(3):243-51. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1060826514561986
14. King TL, Shields M, Sojo V, Daraganova G, Currier D, O’Neil A, et al. Expressions of masculinity and associations with suicidal ideation among young males. BMC Psychiatry. 2020;20:1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-2475-y
15. Smith JA, Watkins DC, Griffit DM. Equity, gender and health: New directions for global men’s health promotion. Health Promot J Austr. 2020;31(2):161-5. https://doi.org/10.1002/hpja.337
16. Keddie A. Engaging boys and young men in gender transformation: The possibilities and limits of a pedagogy of empathy. NORMA. 2020;15(2):97-110. https://doi.org/10.1080/18902138.2019.1706883
17. Wilson M, Gwyther K, Swann R, Casey K, Featherston R, Oliffe J, et al. Operationalizing positive masculinity: A theoretical synthesis and school-based framework to engage boys and young men. Health Promot Int. 2021:daab031. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daab031
18. Robertson S, White A, Gough B, Robinson R, Seims A, Raine G, et al. Promoting mental health and wellbeing with men and boys: What works? Project Report – Centre for Men’s Health, Leeds Beckett University, 2015.
19. Su RX, McLean S, Dallat C, Lane BR. Positive masculinity in the outdoors: Applying a systems lens to evaluate an adolescent outdoor education program. J Outdoor Environ Educ. 2021:1-21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42322-021-00078-7
20. West‐Olatunji C, Shure L, Garrett MT, Conwill W, Rivera ET. Rite of passage programs as effective tools for fostering resilience among low‐income African American male adolescents. J Humanist Couns Ed Dev. 2008;47(2):131-43. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1939.2008.tb00053.x
21. Rubinstein A. In the surgery: Holistic management of adolescent health. J Complement Med. 2005;4(5):43.
22. Smith AP. The implementation of a rites of passage programme into a boys’ secondary school. Pastoral Care Ed. 2012;30(4):345-57. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643944.2012.688062
23. Grof C. Rites of passage: a necessary step towards wholeness. Crossroads, the quest for contemporary rites of passage Open Court Publishing Company, La Salla, Illinois, USA. 1996.
24. Chu PS, Saucier DA, Hafner E. Meta-analysis of the relationships between social support and wellbeing in children and adolescents. J Soc Clin Psychol. 2010;29(6):624-45. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2010.29.6.624
25. Lubans DR, Smith JJ, Morgan PJ, Beauchamp MR, Miller A, Lonsdale C, et al. Mediators of psychological wellbeing in adolescent boys. J Adolesc Health. 2016;58(2):230-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.10.010
26. Courtenay W. Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men’s wellbeing: A theory of gender and health. Soc Sci Med. 2000;50:1385-401. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(99)00390-1
27. Pitsoane EM, Gasa VG. The role of father-son relationship in behavioural and emotional development of adolescent boys. Gender and Behav. 2018;16(1):10748-57.
28. Vargas AP, Park‐Taylor J, Harris AM, Ponterotto JG. The identity development of urban minority young men in single‐mother households. J Couns Dev. 2016;94(4):473-82. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12106
29. Fellers M, Schrodt P. Perceptions of fathers’ confirmation and affection as mediators of masculinity and relational quality in father-child relationships. J Fam Commun. 2021;21(1):46-62. https://doi.org/10.1080/15267431.2020.1866574
30. Chu PS, Saucier DA, Hafner E. Meta-analysis of the relationships between social support and wellbeing in children and adolescents. J Soc Clin Psych. 2010;29(6):624-645. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2010.29.6.624
31. Mahalik JR, Locke BD, Ludlow LH, Diemer MA, Scott RP, Gottfried M, Freitas G. Development of the conformity to masculine norms inventory. Psychol Men Masc. 2003;4(1):3-25. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.4.1.3
32. Barnes HL, Olson DH. Parent-adolescent communication and the circumplex model. Child Dev. 1985;56(2):438-47. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129732
33. Koenig HG, Westlund RE, George LK, Hughes DC, Blazer DG, Hybels C. Abbreviating the Duke Social Support Index for use in chronically ill elderly individuals. Psychosomatics. 1993;34(1):61-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0033-3182(93)71928-3
34. Stewart-Brown S, Tennant A, Tennant R, Platt S, Parkinson J, Weich S. Internal construct validity of the Warwick-Edinburgh mental wellbeing scale (WEMWBS): A Rasch analysis using data from the Scottish health education population survey. Health Qual Life Outcomes. 2009;7(15):1-8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-7-15
35. Braun V, Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol. 2006;3(2):77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
36. Vella SA, Swann C, Batterham M, Boydell KM, Eckermann S, Fogarty A, et al. Ahead of the game protocol: A multi-component, community sport-based program targeting prevention, promotion and early intervention for mental health among adolescent males. BMC Public Health. 2018;18(1):1-12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5319-7
37. Elliott K. Negotiations between progressive and ‘traditional’expressions of masculinity among young Australian men. J Sociol. 2019;55(1):108-23. https://doi.org/10.1177/1440783318802996
38. Anderson E, McCormack M. Inclusive masculinity theory: Overview, reflection and refinement. J Gend Stud. 2018;27(5):547-61. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2016.1245605
39. Connell R. Masculinities. Cambridge. Polity Press; 1995.
40. Addis ME, Mansfield AK, Syzdek MR. Is “masculinity” a problem?: Framing the effects of gendered social learning in men. Psychol Men Masc. 2010;11(2):77-90. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018602
41. O’Neil JM. Is criticism of generic masculinity, essentialism, and positive-healthy-masculinity a problem for the psychology of men? Psychol Men Masc. 2010;11(2):98-106. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018917
42. McNeish R, Walker C, Massey O, Tran Q. Using concept mapping to operationalize mental wellbeing for men and boys. Am J Community Psychol. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12419
43. Stevens M, Golombok S, Beveridge M, Study Team TA. Does father absence influence children’s gender development? Findings from a general population study of preschool children. Parenting. 2002;2(1):47-60. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327922par0201_3
44. Juby H, Farrington DP. Disentangling the link between disrupted families and delinquency: Sociodemography, ethnicity and risk behaviours. Br J Criminol. 2001;41(1):22-40. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/41.1.22
45. Jones KA, Benda BB. Alcohol use among adolescents with non-residential fathers: A study of assets and deficits. Alcohol Treat Q. 2004;22(1):3-25. https://doi.org/10.1300/j020v22n01_02
46. Levant RF, McDermott R, Parent MC, Alshabani N, Mahalik JR, Hammer JH. Development and evaluation of a new short form of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI-30). J Couns Psychol. 2020;67(5):622–636. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000414.
47. Dzewaltowski DA, Estabrooks PA, Welk G, Hill J, Milliken G, Karteroliotis K, et al. Healthy youth places: A randomized controlled trial to determine the effectiveness of facilitating adult and youth leaders to promote physical activity and fruit and vegetable consumption in middle schools. Health Educ Behav. 2009;36(3):583-600. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198108314619
48. Wong NT, Zimmerman MA, Parker EA. A typology of youth participation and empowerment for child and adolescent health promotion. Am J Community Psychol. 2010;46(1):100-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9330-0
49. Coleman D. Traditional masculinity as a risk factor for suicidal ideation: Cross-sectional and prospective evidence from a study of young adults. Arch Suicide Res. 2015;19(3):366-84. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2014.957453
50. Bell B. The rites of passage and outdoor education: Critical concerns for effective programming. J Exp Educ. 2003;26(1):41-9. https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590302600107
51. Van Gennep A. The rites of passage (MB Vizedom & GL Caffee, trans.). Chicago: University of Chicago (Original work published 1908). 1960.